Fig. 4

Axis 1 scores of Bray–Curtis based nMDS ordinations of A–C bacterial community composition (based on relative abundances of ASVs) and D–F functional potential (based on SEED subsystem level 4 categories) for the three conversion types: A and D grassland to exotic forest, B and E grassland to horticulture and C and F exotic forest to grassland. Each plot displays the nMDS scores of the primary axis for the respective long-term land use site and the converted sites, split by whether they are classified as recent or historical conversions. Boxes with different letters within each panel indicate significant differences from each other (Dunn’s P < 0.05)